Critically, the retrieved blocks were identical and unconnected, so the only way children could know whether any blocks remained was by using the verbal label to recall how many objects comprised each tool (or chunk). Children were allowed to search the box and retrieve varying numbers of blocks. Later we told children that one of the tools was hidden in a box, with no visual information provided. Children learned a novel name for a tool that could be built from two blocks, and for a tool that could be built from three blocks. In Experiments 1 and 2, we showed children identical blocks that could be connected to make tools. Here we asked whether 2- to 3-year-old children also can recode-that is, can they restructure representations of individual objects into a higher order chunk, assign this new representation a verbal label, and then later decode the label to retrieve the represented individuals from memory. Whereas this ability has been extensively studied in adults (as, for example, in classic studies of memory in chess), little is known about recoding's developmental origins. That label can then be decoded to retrieve the individual items from long-term memory. Recoding happens when representations of individual items are chunked together into a higher order representation, and the chunk is assigned a label.
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